I.A. Richards: From Practical Criticism to Verbal Reading
Four Kinds of Meaning, Figurative Language and the Verbal Reading of “सदियों पुराना”
The following infographic presents the complete journey of this academic activity—from I. A. Richards’s critical theory to the verbal reading of “सदियों पुराना.”:
Introduction:
Literary criticism helps us understand not only what a literary work says but also how it creates meaning and produces an effect on the reader. A poem may appear simple on the surface, but its words can carry several layers of meaning through emotion, tone, imagery, metaphor and context. Therefore, reading poetry carefully requires more than simply identifying its theme.
In this academic activity, I studied the critical ideas of I. A. Richards, especially his concepts of Practical Criticism, the Four Kinds of Meaning and Figurative Language. Richards gives importance to the actual language of a literary work and encourages readers to examine how words create meaning and response.
After studying the theoretical material, I applied these ideas to my assigned poem, “सदियों पुराना.” The second part of the activity therefore becomes a practical exercise in verbal reading. I examine the poem through its words, images, repetition, questions, tone, metaphors and overall movement.
About the Academic Activity
This academic activity introduces students to the critical method of I. A. Richards and develops the ability to read poetry closely. The study material focuses on Richards’s ideas about language, meaning, figurative expression, misunderstanding and literary judgment.
For the practical part of the activity, students were required to study the poem assigned according to their roll number and then undertake its verbal reading. My assigned poem is “सदियों पुराना.”
The activity therefore connects literary theory with practical textual analysis.
What Was Given for the Activity?
Three main kinds of material were provided for this activity.
A teacher’s blog introducing I. A. Richards and his discussion of Figurative Language.
Research material explaining Richards’s Practical Criticism, Four Kinds of Meaning and Figurative Language.
A collection of poems from which each student was assigned a poem according to the roll number.
These materials helped me understand the theoretical method before applying it to the poem.
What Exactly Was the Task?
The task consisted of two connected stages.
The first stage was to understand I. A. Richards’s critical ideas, particularly his Four Kinds of Meaning and his discussion of Figurative Language. This required understanding concepts such as Sense, Feeling, Tone, Intention, scientific and emotive uses of language, poetic meaning and common misunderstandings in reading poetry.
The second stage was to apply these ideas to the poem assigned to me. Therefore, my practical task was to undertake a verbal reading of “सदियों पुराना” by paying close attention to its actual words, images, repetitions, questions, figurative expressions and emotional effects.
My Approach to the Activity:
I approached this activity in two stages. First, I studied the theoretical material on I. A. Richards and tried to understand his concepts in simple terms. Second, I returned to my assigned poem and examined its language closely.
I focused particularly on the title, important words, repetition, imagery, rhetorical questions, metaphors, contrasts and the movement of the poem. I also considered how the poem produces emotional and intellectual effects.
This approach helped me understand that verbal reading is not simply finding the theme of a poem. It is studying how the language of the poem creates that theme and its overall effect.
Objectives of the Activity:
The main objectives of this activity are:
- To understand I. A. Richards as an important modern literary critic.
- To understand the principles of Practical Criticism.
- To study the Four Kinds of Meaning: Sense, Feeling, Tone and Intention.
- To understand the scientific and emotive uses of language.
- To understand the importance of figurative language in poetry.
- To identify common misunderstandings that occur while reading poetry.
- To develop the skill of close verbal reading.
- To apply Richards’s critical ideas to an actual poem.
- To develop a more careful and evidence-based approach to literary interpretation.
What Does “Verbal Reading” Mean?
Verbal reading means paying close attention to the actual language of a literary text. The reader examines the words, phrases, line breaks, repetition, imagery, sound, rhythm, questions, contrasts and figurative expressions used by the poet.
A verbal reading does not begin by imposing a fixed interpretation on the poem. Instead, the reader allows the language of the poem to provide evidence for interpretation.
For example, in “सदियों पुराना,” expressions such as “खूसट बूढ़ा,” “झुर्रियों के जाल,” “मीठा झरना,” “दरवाजे” and “जमीन बंधक” invite us to look beyond their ordinary dictionary meanings. Their significance becomes clearer when they are examined in relation to the whole poem.
I. A. Richards and His Critical Method:
I. A. Richards and New Criticism
Ivor Armstrong Richards was one of the most influential figures in twentieth-century literary criticism. He played an important role in developing a more systematic approach to the study of literature and language.
His work strongly influenced the development of New Criticism, particularly because of his emphasis on close reading and careful attention to the language of a literary work.
However, Richards was not exactly the same as the later New Critics. He was also deeply interested in the reader’s response and psychological experience. He wanted to understand what happens when readers encounter poetry and why they sometimes misunderstand it.
Thus, Richards’s criticism connects the text, language and experience of reading.
Richards as a New Critic with a Difference:
Richards can be considered an important predecessor and inspiration for New Criticism. His emphasis on close textual analysis helped prepare the way for later twentieth-century critical practices.
At the same time, Richards gave considerable attention to the reader. He was interested in the attitudes and emotional responses produced by poetry.
Therefore, his method can be understood as a meeting point between close textual study and the psychological experience of reading.
This makes Richards particularly useful for studying poetry because he asks us to examine both the language of the poem and the response produced by that language.
Major Works of I. A. Richards:
I. A. Richards wrote several important works that influenced modern literary criticism. Among his major works are:
- The Meaning of Meaning (1923), written with C. K. Ogden.
- The Principles of Literary Criticism (1924).
- Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment (1929).
These works deal with language, meaning, literary value, interpretation and the psychology of reading.
Understanding Practical Criticism:
Practical Criticism is one of Richards’s most important contributions to literary studies.
Richards experimented with giving students poems without important identifying information such as the author or title. He then studied their responses to discover how readers actually understood poetry.
The purpose was to examine what readers thought and felt about poems and why they responded in particular ways.
This approach made literary criticism more practical and empirical. Instead of depending only on personal impressions or established opinions about famous poets, Richards encouraged readers to examine the evidence provided by the poem itself.
From Personal Impression to Critical Reading:
A reader may immediately say:
“I like this poem.”
or
“This poem is very emotional.”
Such responses are natural, but they are not enough for detailed literary criticism.
Richards encourages us to ask why we experience the poem in a particular way.
For example:
Which words create the emotion?
What kind of tone is produced?
How does repetition affect the reader?
What associations are created by the images?
What is the purpose of the figurative language?
How do different parts of the poem work together?
Critical reading therefore transforms an immediate personal response into a more reasoned interpretation based on textual evidence.
Close Textual and Verbal Reading:
Richards gives great importance to the words of a poem. Words do not always carry only one simple meaning. Their meaning can change according to context, emotional association, tone and intention.
This is particularly important in poetry because poetic language often depends upon suggestion, association and figurative meaning.
A verbal reader therefore studies the actual language carefully rather than jumping immediately to a general theme.
In “सदियों पुराना,” for instance, the expression “झुर्रियों के जाल” does not merely describe wrinkles. The word “जाल” introduces the idea of entrapment. Similarly, “जमीन बंधक” becomes more meaningful when considered as a possible image of lost autonomy or self-possession.
Four Kinds of Meaning:
One of Richards’s most important contributions is his concept of the Four Kinds of Meaning. According to Richards, words in poetry communicate through Sense, Feeling, Tone and Intention.
1.Sense
Sense refers to what the words directly communicate or what they refer to. It is the basic informational meaning of a statement. When we read a poem, we first need to understand what the words are saying and what situation or idea they describe.
Sense provides the logical and verbal foundation of a poem. Without understanding the sense of the words, it becomes difficult to understand the deeper emotional or artistic effects of the poem.
2. Feeling
Feeling refers to the emotions and attitudes associated with words. Words do not simply provide information; they can also create emotional responses in the reader.
For example, a word may suggest happiness, sadness, fear, anger, sympathy, love or excitement. These emotional associations become an important part of poetic meaning.
Thus, feeling explains the emotional dimension of language. It helps us understand what a poem makes us feel and how its language creates an emotional experience.
3. Tone
Tone refers to the writer’s or poet’s attitude towards the subject or the reader. It is expressed through the choice, arrangement and use of words.
A poem may have a serious, humorous, critical, ironic, sympathetic, angry, questioning or admiring tone. The same subject can produce different effects depending on the tone in which it is presented.
Therefore, tone helps the reader recognize the attitude behind the words.
4. Intention
Intention refers to the purpose or effect that the poet seeks to achieve through the poem. It concerns what the poet wants to communicate, suggest or make the reader understand or feel.
Intention is not simply the poet’s personal biography or private motive. In verbal reading, it is understood through the poem itself—through its words, structure, images, tone and emotional effects.
Thus, intention helps us understand the overall direction and purpose of the poem.
SENSE + FEELING + TONE + INTENTION = TOTAL POETIC MEANING
Four Kinds of Meaning Together:
Richards’s four kinds of meaning should not be treated as four completely separate boxes. They work together.
- Sense gives us the basic reference.
- Feeling gives emotional colouring.
- Tone reveals attitude.
- Intention helps us understand the purpose or effect of the expression.
- Together they create the fuller meaning of a literary work.
A strong verbal reading therefore asks all four questions:
What does the language say?
What does it make us feel?
What attitude does it express?
What effect does it appear to seek?
Two Uses of Language:
Richards also distinguishes between two broad uses of language: scientific use and emotive use.
Scientific Use of Language:
The scientific use of language aims to communicate information accurately. In this use, words are expected to refer clearly to things, facts or conditions.
For example, a scientific statement such as “Water freezes at 0°C under standard atmospheric pressure” is intended to communicate factual information. Its truth or falsity can be examined.
The primary concern here is accuracy and reference.
Emotive Use of Language:
The emotive use of language is different. It is concerned with producing or communicating feelings, attitudes and emotional responses.
Poetry frequently uses language in this way.
When a poet describes a person as “a storm,” the expression is not normally intended as a scientific statement. The purpose is to create an emotional and imaginative understanding of that person.
Therefore, poetic language often depends on suggestion, association, imagery and emotional force.
Scientific and Emotive Use of Language
Scientific Language
Emotive Language
Purpose: Communicates facts and information.
Example: “Water boils at 100°C.”
Purpose: Expresses feelings and attitudes.
Example: “My heart is burning with sorrow.”
Nature: Precise, factual and relatively objective.
Effect: Gives clear information.
Nature: Suggestive, associative and emotional.
Effect: Creates an emotional response.
Literary Example: A factual statement in a scientific description.
Literary Example: Shakespeare’s “O Romeo, Romeo!” expresses intense emotion rather than factual information.
Scientific language mainly informs; emotive language also creates feeling and attitude.
Scientific and Emotive Use of Language
| Scientific Language | Emotive Language |
|---|---|
|
Purpose: Communicates facts and information.
Example: “Water boils at 100°C.” |
Purpose: Expresses feelings and attitudes.
Example: “My heart is burning with sorrow.” |
|
Nature: Precise, factual and relatively objective.
Effect: Gives clear information. |
Nature: Suggestive, associative and emotional.
Effect: Creates an emotional response. |
| Literary Example: A factual statement in a scientific description. | Literary Example: Shakespeare’s “O Romeo, Romeo!” expresses intense emotion rather than factual information. |
Scientific language mainly informs; emotive language also creates feeling and attitude.
Poetry and Prose:
The language of poetry cannot always be understood in exactly the same way as ordinary prose.
In prose, particularly factual prose, words often aim at relatively direct communication. In poetry, however, words may carry several associations at the same time. They may communicate an idea while also producing emotion, creating an image and suggesting an attitude.
This does not mean that poetry has no sense or logic. Rather, its logic is often poetic and contextual rather than purely scientific.
A poetic statement may therefore be meaningful even when it is not literally or scientifically true.
For this reason, a reader should not judge every poetic image by asking whether it could literally happen in the physical world.
Figurative Language:
Figurative language is one of the most important aspects of Richards’s discussion.
Poetry frequently communicates through metaphor, simile, personification, symbol and imagery. These forms allow poets to express complex emotions and ideas in a vivid and concentrated manner.
A metaphor does not simply decorate a poem. It can change the way we understand an experience.
For example, if a poet describes memory as “a locked room,” the expression creates an imaginative relationship between memory and confinement. We do not need to believe that memory is literally a physical room. We understand the emotional and conceptual association created by the metaphor.
In “सदियों पुराना,” expressions such as “झुर्रियों के जाल,” “मीठा झरना” and “जमीन बंधक” function in this way. Their meaning develops through their figurative and contextual relationships.
The Value of Figurative Language:
Figurative language gives poetry the ability to communicate experiences that may be difficult to express directly.
A direct statement such as “an old social system controls the woman” can communicate an idea, but it may not create the same imaginative impact as the image of a “सदियों पुराना / एक खूसट बूढ़ा” living within her.
Similarly, the phrase “झुर्रियों के जाल” transforms the marks of old age into an image of entrapment.
The strength of figurative language lies in this ability to make an abstract condition visible, emotional and memorable.
However, figurative language should not be interpreted mechanically. The reader must understand its context and poetic function.
Four Types of Misunderstanding:
Richards identifies several common problems that prevent readers from understanding poetry properly.
1. Misunderstanding the Sense
A reader may misunderstand the basic meaning because of careless reading, unfamiliar vocabulary or an intuitive assumption.
The solution is careful attention to the words and their context.
2. Over-Literal or Prosaic Reading
A reader may treat a poetic image as though it were a factual statement.
This can destroy the imaginative meaning of poetry. A metaphor should not always be tested as if it were a scientific proposition.
3. Defective Scholarship
Sometimes readers misunderstand a poem because they lack necessary knowledge of its language, references, historical background or literary context.
Some contextual knowledge can therefore be necessary for accurate interpretation.
4. Differences Between Poetic and Prose Meaning
Words may operate differently in poetry and ordinary prose. A poetic expression may carry associations, emotions and suggestions that exceed its dictionary definition.
Therefore, the reader must consider not only what a word means in isolation but also what it is doing in the poem.
The Danger of Literalism:
One of the greatest dangers in reading poetry is literalism.
Literalism occurs when a reader insists that every poetic statement must be understood exactly as a factual statement.
But poetry often works through imaginative transformation.
For example, when “सदियों पुराना” presents a figure inside a woman, the reader does not have to imagine a literal old man physically living inside her body. The figure can be understood symbolically as an inherited mentality, social authority or historical structure.
The important question is not:
“Can this happen literally?”
The better question is:
“What does this image help the poem express?”
This distinction is essential for a successful verbal reading.
Personification
Personification is a figure of speech in which human qualities, actions or characteristics are given to non-human things, abstract ideas or objects.
Personification can make an abstract idea vivid and emotionally understandable.
Richards recognises the value of personification but also warns against taking it too far. A reader should understand the poetic purpose of the personification rather than becoming trapped in questions about whether every detail of the imagined figure is literally possible.
Evils of Over-Elaborated Personification:
Over-elaborated personification can become problematic when the reader or poet treats an imaginative comparison as though it were a complete literal identity.
A metaphor or personification usually highlights certain qualities. It does not necessarily mean that every quality of the source image applies to the subject.
Therefore, a reader should identify what the figure illuminates rather than demanding complete literal consistency.
This principle is particularly useful for reading the old man in “सदियों पुराना.” The figure can represent inherited patriarchal authority without requiring every physical detail of an actual old man to have a separate symbolic meaning.
Comparative Criticism:
Comparative criticism can help us understand the value of a poetic expression by comparing it with other possible ways of expressing the same idea.
A poet chooses one expression rather than another, and that choice matters.
For example, “खूसट बूढ़ा” has a very different emotional effect from simply saying “पुरानी परंपरा.”
The metaphor makes the abstract social condition personal, visible and threatening.
Thus, comparing possible expressions can reveal why a particular word or image is artistically effective.
Visual Memory:
Richards also gives importance to the role of visual memory and imagery in poetic understanding.
Some words create mental pictures. These pictures may help readers remember and emotionally experience an idea.
“लाठियां ठकठकाते”, for example, creates an audible and visual impression of an old figure moving with a stick.
“झुर्रियों के जाल” creates a striking visual image of wrinkles becoming something like a web.
“मीठा झरना,” “मछलियां” and “सीपियां” create another visual and natural world.
These images make the poem more concrete and memorable.
The Nature of Poetic Truth:
Poetic truth is not necessarily the same as scientific truth.
Scientific truth asks whether a statement can be verified as factually correct. Poetic truth can express an emotional, psychological or imaginative reality.
A poem may therefore communicate something deeply true about human experience through an image that is not literally factual.
In “सदियों पुराना,” the idea of a centuries-old figure inside a woman may not be a literal claim. Yet it can express a powerful truth about how historical traditions and inherited social attitudes can continue to influence individual lives.
Thus, poetic truth is often experienced through emotional recognition and imaginative understanding.
Two Kinds of Metaphor:
Richards’s discussion also helps us distinguish between different functions of metaphor.
A metaphor may primarily help us understand one thing through another by creating a relationship of sense. This can be understood as a sense metaphor.
A metaphor may also work strongly through emotion and attitude. It can create an emotional response rather than simply explaining an idea. This can be understood as an emotive metaphor.
In actual poetry, these functions can overlap.
For example, “झुर्रियों के जाल” communicates an idea of entrapment, but it also produces discomfort and a sense of being trapped by something old and persistent.
Aim of a Good Reader:
For Richards, a good reader should neither be completely mechanical nor completely impressionistic.
A good reader should:
read the actual words carefully;
understand the basic sense;
recognise emotional associations;
identify tone;
consider apparent intention;
recognise figurative language;
avoid unnecessary literalism;
understand context;
observe relationships among words;
and judge the total poetic effect.
The reader should therefore combine accuracy with imagination.
From Theory to Practice:
The theoretical ideas of I. A. Richards become most useful when they are applied to an actual literary text.
The assigned poem “सदियों पुराना” provides a rich opportunity for such an application. Its language contains repetition, metaphor, imagery, rhetorical questions, symbolic objects and strong emotional contrasts.
The poem presents a conflict between an inherited and persistent force represented through the image of an old man and a woman who is encouraged to recognise and resist that force.
Before analysing the poem, however, it is important to keep the poem itself at the centre of the reading. The following visual represents the movement from inherited authority and entrapment towards awareness, resistance and freedom.
THE ASSIGNED POEM AND ITS VERBAL READING:
Complete Assigned Poem: “सदियों पुराना”
The following is the complete poem assigned to me for the activity. I have kept the original Hindi text as the basis for my verbal analysis because Richards’s method requires close attention to the actual words of the poem.
सदियों पुराना
सदियों पुराना
एक खूसट बूढ़ा
जो लाठियां ठकठकाते
अभी भी अपनी मुंछों को
तेल पिलाते रहता है
आखिर तुम कैसे
उसकी झुर्रियों के जाल से
बाहर आ पाओगी
तुम्हारे भीतर है
हमारी छटपटाती
भूखी इच्छाएं
खूनी वासनाएं
इन सबके बीच
आखिर कब तक
रह पाओगी
तुम वह मीठा झरना
जिसमें तैरती हैं
मछलियां
किनारे पर जिसके
पड़ी होती हैं सीपियां
तुम्हारे भीतर है
सदियों पुराना
एक खूसट बूढ़ा
जो लाठियां ठकठकाते
अभी भी अपनी मुंछों को
तेल पिलाते रहता है
आखिर तुम कैसे
उसकी झुर्रियों के जाल से
बाहर आ पाओगी
तुम्हें बंद करने होंगे
वे सारे दरवाजे
जो खोल रखे हैं
उस खूसट बूढ़े ने
आखिर कोई कैसे
सदियों तक अपनी जमीन
बंधक रहने दे सकता है
Verbal Reading of “सदियों पुराना”:
A verbal reading of “सदियों पुराना” begins with the language of the poem itself. Rather than immediately imposing an outside theory on the poem, I first examine the words, repetitions, images, questions, contrasts and movement of the poem.
The poem is written in Hindi free verse and presents a striking symbolic conflict. On one side is the figure of the “सदियों पुराना / एक खूसट बूढ़ा”; on the other side is the woman who is represented through the image of a “मीठा झरना” containing fish and shells.
The poem therefore creates a tension between something old, controlling and persistent and something living, fresh and potentially free.
The central question is how the woman can escape the inherited force that exists “within” her and finally close the doors that have been opened by that force.
The Title: “सदियों पुराना”:
The title “सदियों पुराना” is extremely important because it establishes the historical dimension of the poem before the poem even begins.
The phrase literally suggests something that has existed for centuries. However, in the context of the poem, it can suggest more than chronological age.
The repetition of the phrase indicates that the force represented in the poem is not a new problem. It has continued across generations.
The title therefore prepares the reader for a conflict involving inheritance, continuity and persistence.
It also becomes more meaningful when repeated inside the poem. The phrase is not simply a description of age; it becomes a verbal reminder of how deeply rooted the represented social force is.
Sense:
At the level of sense, the poem speaks to a woman about something that exists within her: a centuries-old, unpleasant old man who continues to walk with a stick and maintain his moustache. The speaker asks how she will escape from the “net” of his wrinkles.
The poem then introduces another internal presence: restless, hungry desires and violent passions.
In the middle of these forces, the woman is imagined as a sweet spring in which fish swim and beside which shells lie.
The old man returns in the poem, creating repetition and reinforcing his continuing presence. Finally, the speaker tells the woman that she must close all the doors that the old man has left open. The poem ends with a question about how anyone can allow their land to remain mortgaged for centuries.
At the most basic level, therefore, the poem describes a struggle between an inherited controlling force and the woman’s possibility of freedom and self-possession.
But Richards reminds us that sense is only one part of meaning. The poem becomes richer when we examine its feelings, tone, intention and figurative language.
Feeling:
The emotional atmosphere of the poem is strong and complex.
Words such as “खूसट,” “झुर्रियों के जाल,” “छटपटाती,” “भूखी,” and “खूनी” create feelings of discomfort, pressure, restlessness and violence.
The expression “भूखी इच्छाएं” gives desire the quality of hunger. Hunger suggests something that is not satisfied and continues to demand fulfilment.
The phrase “खूनी वासनाएं” intensifies this emotional atmosphere. The word “खूनी” associates desire with violence and danger.
Against these darker images, the poem presents the beautiful image of the “मीठा झरना.” This image introduces freshness, natural movement and life.
The emotional movement is therefore not one-dimensional. The poem contains both darkness and beauty, oppression and vitality, fear and possibility.
Tone:
The tone of the poem is mainly questioning, critical, urgent and resistant.
The repeated word “आखिर” is particularly important. It appears in questions such as:
“आखिर तुम कैसे…”
“आखिर कब तक…”
“आखिर कोई कैसे…”
These questions do not simply seek information. They challenge the existing condition.
The speaker does not calmly accept the situation. Instead, the questions create urgency and pressure the woman towards awareness.
The tone also becomes more assertive near the end:
“तुम्हें बंद करने होंगे / वे सारे दरवाजे”
The movement from questioning towards instruction strengthens the resistant character of the poem.
Intention:
The intention of a literary work cannot always be known with complete certainty. Therefore, it is more appropriate to speak of what the poem appears to seek through its language.
“सदियों पुराना” appears to challenge inherited structures that continue to restrict individual freedom.
The poem encourages the woman to recognise the old force operating within her and to close the doors through which that force continues to exercise influence.
The final image of “अपनी जमीन / बंधक” suggests a loss of autonomy and self-possession. The poem appears to encourage the recovery of what has been surrendered or controlled.
Thus, the apparent intention of the poem is not simply to describe oppression but to create awareness of it and move towards resistance.
The Central Metaphor: “एक खूसट बूढ़ा”
The most striking image in the poem is “एक खूसट बूढ़ा.”
The poem does not simply say that an old social tradition exists. Instead, it turns this abstract force into a human figure.
The phrase “खूसट बूढ़ा” carries strong negative emotional colouring. “बूढ़ा” suggests age and long existence, while “खूसट” gives the figure an unpleasant and contemptuous quality.
In a possible social and feminist interpretation, this figure can be understood as a symbolic representation of an inherited patriarchal mentality or social structure. The figure is not necessarily a literal individual.
This interpretation becomes stronger because he is described through signs traditionally associated with masculine authority: a walking stick and an oiled moustache.
The metaphor therefore gives an abstract historical structure a visible and memorable form.
“लाठियां ठकठकाते”
The expression “लाठियां ठकठकाते” is important not only for its meaning but also for its sound.
The word “ठकठकाते” creates an auditory effect. While reading the line, the repeated sound suggests the tapping of a stick.
This makes the old figure seem active rather than completely passive. Although he belongs to the past, he is still moving and making his presence heard.
The image therefore supports the larger idea that an old social structure may continue to influence the present.
“मुंछों को तेल पिलाते”
The expression “मुंछों को तेल पिलाते” creates a vivid image of masculine pride and self-display.
A moustache can carry cultural associations of masculinity, authority, pride and traditional male identity. The unusual expression “तेल पिलाते” makes the image more vivid and slightly ironic.
The old figure is therefore presented as someone who continues to preserve and display his authority.
The phrase also contributes to the poem’s satirical edge. The figure appears ridiculous in one sense, but his continued influence remains serious.
“झुर्रियों के जाल”
The phrase “झुर्रियों के जाल” is one of the poem’s strongest metaphors.
Wrinkles normally signify age. But here they become a “जाल,” or net.
The metaphor transforms age into entrapment.
The image suggests that the old force has become so deeply embedded in social and psychological life that escaping from it is difficult.
Importantly, we do not need to interpret every wrinkle literally. The poetic effect comes from the relationship between old age and the idea of a net.
The past has become a structure that catches and restricts.
“भूखी इच्छाएं”
The phrase “भूखी इच्छाएं” is an example of emotionally powerful figurative language.
Desire is presented as something hungry.
Hunger suggests absence, dissatisfaction and an intense need for fulfilment. Therefore, the phrase communicates more than the existence of desires. It communicates their restlessness and intensity.
The word “छटपटाती” strengthens this effect. Desire is not peaceful; it is restless and struggling.
“खूनी वासनाएं”
The expression “खूनी वासनाएं” creates an even darker emotional atmosphere.
The adjective “खूनी” connects passion with blood and violence. It suggests that desire can become destructive when it is uncontrolled or connected with oppressive structures.
This expression also creates a sharp contrast with the later image of the “मीठा झरना.”
The poem therefore places destructive emotional energy beside an image of natural beauty and life.
“मीठा झरना”
The “मीठा झरना” is one of the most beautiful images in the poem.
A spring suggests water, movement, freshness and life. The adjective “मीठा” adds pleasure and attractiveness.
Within the poem, the woman can be understood symbolically through this image as a source of vitality, beauty, emotional richness and possibility.
The image also creates a contrast with the old man and the imagery of wrinkles, hunger and violence.
However, the speaker asks:
“आखिर कब तक / रह पाओगी / तुम वह मीठा झरना”
This question suggests that even something naturally beautiful and life-giving can be affected if oppressive forces continue to exist around it.
Four Kinds of Meaning: Theory, Application and Poetic Effect
I. A. Richards's framework of Sense, Feeling, Tone and Intention
Swipe horizontally → to explore the complete comparison.
Four Kinds of Meaning: Theory, Application and Poetic Effect
I. A. Richards's framework of Sense, Feeling, Tone and Intention
Swipe horizontally → to explore the complete comparison.
Fish and Shells:
The images of fish and shells extend the natural imagery of the spring.
The fish are moving creatures. Their presence gives the spring life and movement.
The shells lying on the bank suggest natural beauty, richness and something precious.
Together, these images create a peaceful and living world.
This makes the contrast with the “खूसट बूढ़ा,” “झुर्रियों के जाल,” “भूखी इच्छाएं” and “खूनी वासनाएं” even stronger.
The poem therefore contains two imaginative spaces: one associated with inherited control and darker forces, and another associated with life, beauty and possibility.
“दरवाजे”
The image of “दरवाजे” becomes especially important near the end of the poem.
A door can allow entry and exit. Therefore, doors can symbolise access, openness, boundaries and control.
The poem says:
“तुम्हें बंद करने होंगे / वे सारे दरवाजे”
The command changes the direction of the poem.
Earlier, the woman is presented as someone struggling to escape. At the end, she is told to take an active step.
The doors therefore become symbols of the channels through which the old oppressive force continues to enter or influence her life.
“अपनी जमीन बंधक”
The final image of “अपनी जमीन / बंधक” is highly significant.
Literally, mortgaging land means placing one’s property under a financial obligation. In the poem, however, the image can be understood symbolically.
“अपनी जमीन” may suggest one’s identity, autonomy, rights, belonging and self-possession.
If one’s own land remains mortgaged for centuries, one loses effective control over what belongs to oneself.
The final question therefore expands the poem from individual experience to a broader question of ownership and freedom:
“आखिर कोई कैसे / सदियों तक अपनी जमीन / बंधक रहने दे सकता है”
The ending turns the poem into a challenge against prolonged submission.
Repetition:
Repetition is one of the most important verbal techniques in the poem.
The phrase “सदियों पुराना” appears repeatedly.
The stanza describing the “खूसट बूढ़ा” also returns almost in the same form.
This repetition creates the feeling that the old force is persistent and difficult to remove.
At the same time, repetition gives the poem structural unity.
The reader encounters the old figure again after the passage about desires and the spring. This return suggests that the problem remains unresolved until the final movement towards resistance.
Rhetorical Questions:
The poem uses several rhetorical questions.
“आखिर तुम कैसे…”
“आखिर कब तक…”
“आखिर कोई कैसे…”
These questions create urgency.
They are not ordinary questions expecting simple answers. They challenge the reader and the woman to think about the impossibility of continuing the same condition indefinitely.
The repetition of “आखिर” creates impatience with prolonged submission.
The questions also make the poem conversational and direct because the speaker addresses “तुम.”
Short Lines and Rhythm:
“सदियों पुराना” is written in free verse rather than a fixed traditional metre.
Its rhythm is created through short lines, pauses, repetition and the arrangement of phrases.
For example:
“तुम्हें बंद करने होंगे
वे सारे दरवाजे
जो खोल रखे हैं
उस खूसट बूढ़े ने”
The short lines slow the reader down and give emphasis to individual phrases.
Similarly, the sound of “ठकठकाते” creates an auditory rhythm.
Thus, although the poem does not follow a fixed metre, it has a carefully noticeable verbal and rhythmic movement.
Contrast in the Poem:
Contrast is central to the poem’s structure.
The old man is associated with age, authority and entrapment.
The spring is associated with freshness, beauty, movement and life.
The “भूखी इच्छाएं” and “खूनी वासनाएं” create darker emotional energy, while the fish and shells create natural imagery.
The open doors suggest the continuation of influence, while closing the doors suggests resistance.
Finally, “अपनी जमीन” represents something that should belong to the self, while “बंधक” represents its loss of control.
These contrasts help the reader understand the poem’s central tension.
The Overall Verbal Movement So Far:
The poem moves through a carefully organised sequence.
It begins with the historical past through “सदियों पुराना.”
It then turns the past into a human figure through “एक खूसट बूढ़ा.”
The figure becomes an image of continuing authority through his stick and moustache.
His wrinkles become a “जाल,” transforming history into entrapment.
The poem then introduces restless desires and violent passions.
Against this darker world appears the “मीठा झरना,” creating an image of life and possibility.
The old figure returns, showing that the problem has not disappeared.
Finally, the poem moves towards action: “तुम्हें बंद करने होंगे / वे सारे दरवाजे.”
The ending expands this act of resistance through the metaphor of “अपनी जमीन / बंधक.”
Thus, the poem moves from awareness of inherited oppression towards the possibility of resistance and self-possession.
Applying Richards’s Four Misunderstandings:
I. A. Richards’s method is especially useful because it teaches the reader to recognize the common ways in which poetry can be misunderstood. A poem should not be read only through its dictionary meanings or through a quick personal impression. The reader must carefully examine the words, context, images, tone, rhythm and purpose of the poem.
Richards identifies four important kinds of misunderstanding.
1. Misunderstanding the Sense through Careless Reading:
Sometimes a reader does not understand what the poem actually says because of careless or intuitive reading. The reader may immediately form an opinion without paying attention to the exact words.
In “सदियों पुराना,” the phrase “एक खूसट बूढ़ा” should therefore not be understood only as an ordinary old man. Within the context of the poem, he can be read symbolically as an inherited social or patriarchal force. The surrounding words—“सदियों पुराना,” “झुर्रियों के जाल,” “दरवाजे,” and “जमीन बंधक”—help us understand this larger meaning.
2. Over-Literal or Prosaic Reading:
A second misunderstanding occurs when the reader treats poetic language as if it were scientific or ordinary prose. Poetry frequently uses metaphor, symbolism and personification. These expressions are not necessarily intended to be literally true.
For example, “झुर्रियों के जाल” does not mean that actual wrinkles have physically formed a net. The “net” suggests entrapment. Similarly, “अपनी जमीन बंधक” can be understood symbolically as the loss or surrender of autonomy rather than merely a financial transaction involving land.
3. Defective Scholarship:
A poem can also be misunderstood when the reader lacks necessary literary or contextual knowledge. A reader should understand the literary method being used before making a judgement.
Richards’s theory helps us approach the poem systematically. Instead of asking only “What does this poem mean?”, we can ask: What does it say? What feelings does it create? What is its tone? What effect does it seek?
4. Confusing Poetic Meaning with Ordinary Meaning:
Words can behave differently in poetry and prose. A poetic word may carry associations and emotional suggestions beyond its ordinary dictionary definition.
For instance, the word “दरवाजे” ordinarily refers to physical doors. In this poem, however, the doors can suggest structures of restriction that keep the woman connected to the inherited system. Therefore, the poetic meaning becomes richer than the literal meaning.
I. A. Richards’s Four Kinds of Misunderstanding
Misunderstanding
Meaning
Example in “सदियों पुराना”
1. Misunderstanding the Sense
Careless reading may prevent the reader from understanding what the poem actually says.
The “खूसट बूढ़ा” can be understood symbolically as an inherited patriarchal force, not simply an old man.
2. Over-Literal Reading
Poetic images are wrongly treated as literal or ordinary statements.
“झुर्रियों के जाल” suggests entrapment, while “जमीन बंधक” suggests loss of autonomy.
3. Defective Scholarship
Lack of literary or contextual knowledge can lead to an uninformed judgement.
Richards’s method encourages us to examine the poem’s words, feelings, tone and intention.
4. Confusing Poetic and Ordinary Meaning
The reader sees only dictionary meanings and ignores poetic associations.
“दरवाजे” can symbolize social restrictions rather than only physical doors.
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I. A. Richards’s Four Kinds of Misunderstanding
| Misunderstanding | Meaning | Example in “सदियों पुराना” |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Misunderstanding the Sense | Careless reading may prevent the reader from understanding what the poem actually says. | The “खूसट बूढ़ा” can be understood symbolically as an inherited patriarchal force, not simply an old man. |
| 2. Over-Literal Reading | Poetic images are wrongly treated as literal or ordinary statements. | “झुर्रियों के जाल” suggests entrapment, while “जमीन बंधक” suggests loss of autonomy. |
| 3. Defective Scholarship | Lack of literary or contextual knowledge can lead to an uninformed judgement. | Richards’s method encourages us to examine the poem’s words, feelings, tone and intention. |
| 4. Confusing Poetic and Ordinary Meaning | The reader sees only dictionary meanings and ignores poetic associations. | “दरवाजे” can symbolize social restrictions rather than only physical doors. |
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Feminist and Social Interpretation:
Although Richards’s method is primarily concerned with language and verbal analysis, the verbal details of “सदियों पुराना” also open the poem towards a social and feminist interpretation.
The poem places a woman within a conflict created by a “सदियों पुराना” force. The old man can be interpreted as a symbolic representation of an inherited patriarchal mentality that continues to influence the present. The important point is not the literal identity of the old man but what he represents within the poem.
The woman is repeatedly asked how she can escape from the “झुर्रियों के जाल.” This image suggests that inherited traditions can become deeply woven into individual life. The past is not presented as something completely finished; it continues to operate within the present.
The poem also presents a contrast between restriction and vitality. On one side are the old man, his stick, his moustache and the net of wrinkles. On the other side is the “मीठा झरना,” containing fish and shells. The spring becomes an image of freshness, life and possibility.
The final movement of the poem is especially important:
“तुम्हें बंद करने होंगे
वे सारे दरवाजे
जो खोल रखे हैं
उस खूसट बूढ़े ने”
Here, the woman is no longer simply asked to escape. She is called towards an active act of resistance. The closing of the doors becomes a symbolic rejection of structures that have controlled her.
The final question about keeping one’s land mortgaged for centuries makes the poem’s social argument sharper. “जमीन” can be understood not only as physical property but also as a metaphor for identity, autonomy, rights and self-possession.
Why the Figurative Language Works:
The figurative language of “सदियों पुराना” is powerful because abstract social ideas are transformed into concrete images.
Instead of simply saying that patriarchy is old and restrictive, the poem creates the image of an old man who walks with a stick and oils his moustache. Instead of directly describing historical oppression, it gives us the image of a “झुर्रियों के जाल.” Instead of simply describing female vitality, it creates the image of a sweet spring containing fish and shells.
These images allow the reader to experience the idea emotionally.
Richards’s theory helps us understand why this matters. Figurative language does not merely decorate poetry. It can carry feeling, attitude and intention. A metaphor becomes successful when its associations contribute to the total effect of the poem.
The poem’s images also work together. The old man, wrinkles, doors and mortgaged land belong to a semantic field of age, restriction and possession. The spring, fish, shells and open land belong to a field of life, movement and freedom.
Thus, the figurative language is not a collection of separate decorative expressions. The images form a connected verbal structure.
My Critical Response:
My reading of “सदियों पुराना” became clearer after applying I. A. Richards’s theory. At first, the old man may appear to be simply a strange or unpleasant character. However, close verbal reading shows that the figure operates as a much larger symbol.
The repeated phrase “सदियों पुराना” is particularly important. It suggests that the problem represented in the poem has a long historical continuity. The poem therefore does not present oppression as an isolated personal problem.
I also found the contrast between “झुर्रियों के जाल” and “मीठा झरना” significant. The first image suggests confinement and inherited pressure, while the second suggests life and possibility. This contrast makes the woman’s struggle more visible.
The final image of “जमीन बंधक” is also powerful. It changes the poem from a description of oppression into a question of ownership and self-possession. A person cannot remain permanently separated from her own ground, identity and freedom.
For me, the strongest feature of the poem is that its social message is carried through images rather than through direct explanation. This is precisely where Richards’s verbal approach becomes useful: the meaning develops through the relationship between words, images, feelings, tone and intention.
Learning Outcome:
After completing this activity, I was able to:
1.Understand I. A. Richards’s approach to Practical Criticism and apply his critical method to an individual poem.
2.Identify the Four Kinds of Meaning—Sense, Feeling, Tone and Intention and understand how they work together in poetic interpretation.
3.Distinguish between scientific and emotive uses of language and understand why poetry often communicates through emotional and associative language.
4.Recognize and interpret figurative language without reducing metaphors and symbols to their literal meanings.
5.Identify common misunderstandings in reading poetry, especially careless reading, over-literal reading, defective scholarship and confusion between poetic and ordinary meaning.
6.Develop the practice of close verbal reading by paying attention to words, images, repetition, line breaks, rhetorical questions, rhythm and contrasts.
7.Connect literary theory with practical interpretation by applying Richards’s ideas directly to “सदियों पुराना.”
8.Develop independent critical judgement by moving beyond personal impression and examining how the poem’s language produces its meaning and emotional effect.
Thus, the activity connected literary theory with practical close reading and helped me become a more attentive and critical reader of poetry.
Conclusion:
I. A. Richards’s contribution to literary criticism lies in his insistence that poetry should be carefully read through its actual verbal structure. His approach moves the reader away from vague impressions and towards a more attentive examination of language.
His Four Kinds of Meaning—Sense, Feeling, Tone and Intention—show that poetic meaning is multidimensional. His discussion of scientific and emotive language further explains why poetry cannot always be judged according to the standards of factual or literal discourse.
His emphasis on figurative language is especially relevant to “सदियों पुराना.” The poem communicates its social and emotional conflict through metaphors such as “एक खूसट बूढ़ा,” “झुर्रियों के जाल,” “भूखी इच्छाएं,” “खूनी वासनाएं,” “मीठा झरना,” “दरवाजे,” and “जमीन बंधक.”
Through verbal reading, these expressions reveal a poem concerned with the persistence of inherited authority and the possibility of resistance. The repeated questions create urgency, while the final movement towards closing the doors suggests an active rejection of confinement.
Therefore, Richards’s method does not reduce the poem to a single meaning. Instead, it helps us see how its words, images, emotions, tone, structure and intention work together to produce its total poetic effect.
“To read poetry verbally is to understand not only what its words say, but how those words create their total poetic effect.”
Final Reflection:
This activity changed the way I look at poetry. Earlier, I might have focused mainly on what a poem says. After studying I. A. Richards, I understand that a poem must also be examined through how its language creates meaning.
In “सदियों पुराना,” the old man, the wrinkles, the desires, the spring, the doors and the mortgaged land are not isolated images. They participate in a larger verbal and emotional structure.
The activity therefore helped me connect theory, close reading and interpretation. It showed me that a good literary reader does not simply search for a meaning already hidden inside a poem. Instead, the reader carefully observes how the poem’s language produces its meaning and emotional effect.
Words:7100
Images:04
Citations and References:
Barad, Dilip. “I.A. Richards: Figurative Language.”
Prof. Dilip Barad’s Blog.
Read the original article
Barad, Dilip. “I.A. Richards - Figurative Language - Practical Criticism.”
ResearchGate.
Read the study material
Barad, Dilip. “सदियों पुराना.”
Just Poems. Prof. Dilip Barad’s Blog.
Read the original poem
Richards, I. A. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment.
Kegan Paul, 1929.
Explore the original text
Richards, I. A. The Principles of Literary Criticism.
Kegan Paul, 1924.
Explore the original text
Richards, I. A., and C. K. Ogden. The Meaning of Meaning.
Harcourt, Brace, 1923.
Explore the original text
Bredin, Hugh. “I. A. Richards and the Philosophy of Practical Criticism.”
Philosophy and Literature, vol. 10, 1986, pp. 26–37.
Read the scholarly article
